Ecosystem development is the process by which an ecosystem changes over time. Ecosystems are constantly changing and evolving as a result of the interactions between the living and non-living components within them.
There are several factors that can influence the development of an ecosystem, including abiotic factors such as climate, geology, and topography, and biotic factors such as the presence and interactions of different species. Human activities, such as land use changes, pollution, and resource extraction, can also have significant impacts on ecosystem development.
Ecosystem development typically follows a successional pathway, which is a series of stages through which an ecosystem progresses over time. The first stage of succession is typically characterized by the establishment of pioneer species, which are adapted to colonize and thrive in disturbed or otherwise inhospitable environments. As the ecosystem matures, more complex communities of species develop, eventually reaching a stable state known as a climax community.
Understanding ecosystem development is important for predicting the impacts of human activities on the environment and for informing conservation efforts to protect and preserve ecosystems. It is also important for understanding the impacts of climate change on ecosystems and the ways in which ecosystems may respond and adapt to these changes.
Ecosystem development can be defined as the change in the structure of species populations of an ecological community in a period. The ecological community undergoes more or less orderly changes resulting in the colonization of new habitats. Therefore, it is also known as ‘ecological succession.’ It involves the changes in energy partitioning, species structure, and community processes over time. When ecological development or succession is not disturbed by external forces, it is directional and predictable. The causes of ecological succession are:
Modification of the physical environment by the community
Competition-coexistence interactions at the population level
The trend in environmental development follows the growth from the early or pioneer stage to the mature stage, youth to maturity, and growth stage to a pulsing steady state.
Types of Ecological Successions
Ecological Successions are of two types depending upon the type of forces acting upon the community: autogenic succession and allogenic succession.
Autogenic succession: It is the type of ecosystem development in which the successional changes are greatly determined by internal actions. It is also known as self-generated succession. An example of autogenic succession is the conversion of the agricultural field into a mature forest. In autogenic succession, when new territory is going to form colonization, the gross production (P) is either greater or less than the community respiration (R), which is an unbalanced type of community metabolism. So, they proceed towards a balanced condition, i.e., gross production (P) is equal to community respiration (R). During the succession, the rate of biomass to production increases until a stabilized ecosystem is maintained.
Causes of autogenic succession:
It is caused by the changes in the soil brought by the soil organisms. For example, the collection of organic matter in the humus layer, changes in the pH of the soil due to the growth of different plants, modification of soil nutrients, etc.
The structure of the plants can also bring changes in the community during succession. For example, when larger trees mature, they provide shade to the forest floor, which promotes the growth and flourishing of the shade-tolerant species while inhibiting the growth of the plant species requiring light.
Allogenic succession: It is the type of ecosystem development in which external forces like storms and fire regularly affect the successional changes in the input environment.
Causes of allogenic succession:
It is caused by external environmental factors like climatic factors, i.e., changes in temperature and rainfall patterns. Geological and climatic disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, meteors, floods, fire, high wind, etc., also led to allogenic succession. The greenhouse effect results in the increase of temperature, which also brings allogenic successional changes. It has been observed that, in the geological time scale, at the end of each ice age, great successional changes have taken place. Other factors are changes in soil due to soil erosion, deposition of silt and clay in the ecosystem, etc. This can even modify the nutrient content and water balance in the ecosystem.
The plants do not bring changes during the allogenic succession. But, the animals have an important role in allogenic succession as pollinators, seed dispersers, and plant-eaters (herbivores). In some areas, the animals can increase the nutrient content of the soil and also can bring modification in the soil by creating patches in the habitat, as done by termites, ants, and small mammals. The soil modification may result in the creation of suitable habitats for certain animal species.
On the basis of the quantity of gross production (P) and community respiration (R), ecological succession is of two kinds: autotrophic succession and heterotrophic succession.
- Autotrophic succession: In this type, succession starts with P > R. The succession occurs through the continuous and early supremacy and influence of autotrophic organisms. The succession commences in the inorganic environment, and the bacteria and other heterotrophs are the first to colonize the environment. This succession results in an increase in energy flow in the ecosystem as the green plants deliver energy through food production. The energy flow does not decline but usually decreases or is maintained.
- Heterotrophic succession: In this type, succession starts with P < R. The succession occurs through the continuous and early supremacy and influence of heterotrophic organisms. In this succession, the organisms utilize the energy produced by the dead organic matter through the action of decomposers. In heterotrophic succession, different organisms like animals, fungi, bacteria, etc., are involved; they replace each other during the consecutive successional changes and, at the final stage, utilize all the energy and disperse it in the community.
On the basis of the type of substrate, ecological succession is of two kinds: primary succession and secondary succession.
- Primary succession: It is the type of succession with a new sequence of successional changes i.e., it is the succession occurring on a previously unoccupied substrate (for example, after a volcanic lava flow, in a newly formed water body, newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, etc.). In the preliminary stage of primary succession, the pioneer microorganisms, plants like lichens and mosses, shrubs, and trees start growing. Animals start visiting the place when there is food for them to eat. In this way, the ecosystem becomes fully functional, reaching the climax stage.
- Secondary succession: It is the type of succession commencing on a site already occupied by another community (for example, in a clear-cut forest, in an abandoned crop field, etc.). In the secondary succession, suppose when a disturbance like a wildfire destroys a stable deciduous forest ecosystem, then the fire empties the forest leaving the destroyed content of forest and soil. Firstly, the plants like grasses and herbs start to grow back, and small bushes and trees begin to spread in the area. Then, the fast-growing evergreen forests develop fully, whereas the shade-tolerant trees develop in the shade of the large trees. Due to this, the number of shade-intolerant evergreen trees and plants decreases, and they are replaced by larger deciduous trees and shade-tolerant plant species. Finally, in this way, in secondary succession, the ecosystem comes back to a new but similar form from where it started.
Factors affecting the Ecosystem Development/ Succession
- Energy flow (community metabolism): It includes Gross production, Net community production (yield), Community respiration, and food chains.
- Community structure: It comprises species composition, size of individuals, species diversity, total biomass, and nonliving organic matter.
- Biogeochemical cycles: These include mineral cycles, turnover time and storage of essential elements, internal cycling, and nutrient conservation.
- Natural selection and regulation: It comprises growth form, lifecycles, symbiosis, entropy, information, the overall efficiency of energy and nutrient use, resilience, and resistance.
Stages of Ecological succession
The relatively temporary communities during the succession are differently termed developmental stages or seral stages. The whole series of communities that replace one another in a given space or area is known as the ‘sere’.
- The initial developmental stage is known as the ‘pioneer stage.’ The pioneer stage is characterized by early successional pioneer plant species. These plant species are generally annual plants, and they display high growth rates, small size, short life span, and germination of a large number of easily dispersed seeds.
- The final and mature stabilized stage is known as the ‘climax stage’, which remains for a longer time until it is affected by significant disturbances. In the climax stage, the species composition differs greatly with the topography, microclimate, and disturbance. The main characteristic of the climax stage is the balanced state of community metabolism, i.e., in this stage, the gross production (P) is equal to community respiration (R). Other characteristics include a wide diversity of species, complex food chains, different environment-tolerant vegetation, etc.
Ecosystem development is similar to the relationship between humans and nature as the development trend in both human beings and the ecological community starts from the youth or pioneer stage to the mature or climax stage.
When ecosystem development fails, we should switch to the restoration or redevelopment of the ecological community. So, Restoration ecology is the application of the ecological principles, concepts, and mechanisms for the ecological restoration of highly disturbed sites, ecosystems, and landscapes.
An important part in the successional changes during ecological development is the biogeochemical cycling of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium, etc.
Mutualism, parasitism, predation, commensalism, and other forms of symbiosis have a major role in the successional changes of ecosystem development.
Self- Organization, Synergetics, and Ascendancy
Self-organization: It refers to the process where complex systems consist of many parts which tend to organize to achieve some sort of stable, pulsating state in the absence of external interference. The concept of self-organization is a major key to ecosystem development. It is based on Prigogine’s theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics. The process of spontaneous formation of well-organized structure, pattern, and behavior from random or unorganized initial conditions is widespread in nature. Self-organized ecosystems can only be maintained by a constant flow of energy through them. Thus, they are not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Synergetics: This term was given by Haken (1977). Synergetics refers to the process of many parts working together to achieve order.
Ascendancy: This term was given by Ulanowicz (1980, 1997). Ascendancy refers to the tendency of self-organizing, dissipative systems to develop the complexity of biomass and networks flow over time. This is similar to as seen during ecological succession.
FAQs on Ecosystem Development
What is ecosystem development?
The ecosystem development is the orderly development of the ecological community which is directional and predictable. Ecosystem development results in the change of the species structure in a period of time which can be decades or even millions of years. The ecosystem development can be simply understood as the development starting from the pioneering community of plants, animals and micro-organisms to the stable state or climax community. The ecological development may start either in new unoccupied habitats (primary succession) or in pre-existing community (secondary succession).
What are the 4 types of ecosystems?
The four types of ecosystems are terrestrial ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems, marine ecosystems and domesticated ecosystems. The terrestrial ecosystems includes semi-evergreen tropical forests, evergreen tropical rain forest, temperate deciduous forests, temperate grassland, tropical grassland and savanna, desert, tundra, etc. The aquatic ecosystem includes marine ecosystem and freshwater ecosystems. Marine ecosystems includes deep seas, open oceans, estuaries, continental shelf water, etc. Freshwater ecosystem includes lentic water (ponds and lakes) and lotic water (rivers and streams). The domesticated ecosystems include agro-ecosystems, plantation forest and agro-forest systems, crop fields, etc.
Why the ecosystem is important?
The ecosystem is very much important because we depend on the ecosystem to do so many things like breathing fresh and purified air, getting access to safe and clean drinking water, obtaining food through pollination of crops, getting aesthetic pleasure and enjoying many other such ecosystem services.
What is an example of business ecosystem?
An example of business ecosystem is the application of technology in platform-based ecosystems like Apple or Google.
What does ecosystem mean in technology?
In technology, ecosystem means the network of organizations which create and deliver the products and services of information technology. These ecosystems solve important technical problems within an industry. The urban-industrial society has created new arrangements called techno-ecosystems which are parasitic on the natural ecosystems. They affect the natural life support ecosystems. These new techno-ecosystems include advanced technologies and powerful energy sources.
How do you build a startup ecosystem?
A startup ecosystem is established by the people and organizations in physical or virtual location, interacting as a system to create and manage new startup companies. To build a startup ecosystem, the main five steps to be followed are starting with a collaborative mentality, mapping the local market, gathering the network, working with the government and being honest in work.
Why ecosystem is important to human?
The ecosystem is important to human for their survival and well-being. The ecosystem provides the human beings fresh and clean air, pure drinking water, natural medicines, food sources, raw materials for clothes, household materials and industries, etc.
What defines ecosystem?
The interdependence and interconnecting between the abiotic components (light, water, soil, etc.) and biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) can be defined as ecosystem.
What does succession mean in ecology?
‘Succession’ generally means to follow. In ecology, succession means the successive changes in the structure and composition of species of the ecological communities over time. Ecological succession is a directional change in community composition on an ecological time scale. During succession, the makeup of a community changes over time, starting from the day after a disturbance. Ecological Succession can take place over a number of years, few months or even days. Disturbances keep occurring in the ecosystem in different unpredictable forms like flood, fire, landslide, wind, storm, etc. These bring orderly changes in the ecosystem. Ecologists study these predictable and orderly changes in the ecosystem as well as how life gets adjusted with those disturbances. Example of Ecological succession is succession started after the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event which occurred 250 million years ago before the origin of mammals when the giant flaming asteroid and the methane explosions killed huge number of organisms on the planet. That asteroid largely disturbed the ecology of the planet as it caused removal of very big amount of flora and fauna leaving blank spaces for the organisms which became successful to survive.
What is ecological succession and its types?
So, ecological succession is the process in which an ecological community undergoes a unidirectional series of changes after a disturbance or initial colonization of a new habitat. This leads to the establishment of a relatively stable climax community. Ecological succession is mainly of two types: Primary succession and Secondary succession.
– Primary succession occurs in new areas that have little or no soil due to destruction of the habitat or newly formed habitat. Example: new islands created by waterfalls or a large area destroyed by volcano. In a certain period of time, the dirt forms, plant start to grow and eventually a grassland or a forest starts to form in the ecosystem. The first species that colonize in the new land is called pioneer species.
– Secondary succession occurs when an existing ecosystem is destroyed or disturbed. They are more minor in magnitude in comparison to the primary succession. For example, large area of land destroyed by the forest fire or floods. Even if the fire destroys the forest, the soil remains as it is and eventually after few years it regains its original picture of forest. First the grasses grow, then the bushes start growing, the evergreen trees also start growing and later develop into forest. Finally, the ecosystem is similar but different from where it began.
What are the 4 stages of ecological succession?
The four stages of ecological succession are:
1. Pioneer stage: It produces pioneer species that enter into a primary succession and begin to establish their life. Pioneer species are r-selected species which can grow fast and disperse very well.
2. Establishing stage: In this stage, the living beings identify the basic elements around their ecosystem to sustain their life like food, water and safe habitat. It occurs between the pioneer stage and establishing stage.
3. Sustaining stage: It is most common in climax succession where the living beings continue their pattern of their lifecycle in which birth, death and migration occurs.
4. Producing stage: It occurs during the secondary succession. In this stage, the living beings breed and grow. Due to migration, the produced resources is not enough to support within the ecosystem.
What are the three types of ecological succession?
The three types of ecological succession are Primary succession, Secondary succession and Seasonal Succession.
i. Primary succession: It starts in a new area which has never been supported by an ecological community previously and it is colonized by plants and animals.
ii. Secondary succession: It occurs in an area previously having an ecological community which is changed after the destruction of the original community and arrival of a new community.
iii. Seasonal Succession: It occurs due to the cyclic changes in the environment or interactions between the species in a community. It is not the result of disturbance or catastrophic event in the ecosystem.
What are the 5 stages of succession?
The 5 stages of succession in xerarch (dry areas) are:
1. Lichen stage
2. Moss stage
3. Grass stage
4. Shrub stage
5. Trees
What are the 6 steps of succession?
Ecological succession occurs when an ecosystem undergoes a disturbance and it must regrow. It is all about the changes occurring in the ecosystem. The six steps of succession are as follows:
1. Nudation: The development of ecosystem starts in a bare area where life forms do not caused due to climatic conditions or overexploitation of resources.
2. Invasion or migration: Some species of plants, lower organisms or higher organisms invade into the area according to the soil, water and basic resources content of that newly developing ecosystem.
3. Ecesis: It is the progressive step or phenomenon in the ecosystem where the living organisms after invading into the area start to establish themselves through reproduction and growth.
4. Aggregation: After reproduction, the species start to aggregate in groups and the species population start to increase.
5. Competition: With the increase in population, the species start to compete among each other for resources.
6. Reaction and Stabilization: After the competition among species there comes reaction and later, the community starts to stabilize itself and reaches into the ‘climax stage’.
What are the 2 types of succession?
The two types of succession are Primary succession and Secondary succession.
What are the stages of succession?
Each temporal stage in the process of succession is called seral stage. In hydrarch (water bodies), the seral stages are:
1. Phytoplankton
2. Submerged stage
3. Floating stage
4. Reed swamp stage
5. Marsh meadow/ Sedge stage
6. Woodland stage
7. Tree
What is primary succession example?
Primary Succession: It occurs when organisms start building populations in an area for the first time. Example: starting of succession of organisms in a lifeless wasteland. Even though the habitat is of less comfort and limited resources, since there is no competition, it becomes the main advantage for the organisms. Many organisms have found to be inhabiting the uninhabitable areas of the planet. Among these organisms, the pioneer species are mostly prokaryotes or protists, non-vascular plants, vascular plants, etc.
Before the Permian-Triassic Extinction, there used to be dense forests of gymnosperms like gingkos, cycads, etc. After the asteroid hit, the dense forests became destroyed and died, which were later replaced by lycophytes like club mosses. During this succession period, the lycophytes had to do a lot of struggle for survival but, the rests plants of Paleozoic era could not survive extinction. The primary successional species are mostly plants which have wind-borne seeds like lycophytes or mosses and lichens which have spores that can spread and colonize in an area. The primary succession results in building or rebuilding of soils in a landscape as the early plants grow, die and decompose there. As soon as the soil becomes ready slowly, it becomes habitat for the bigger plants resulting in secondary succession. In this way, a whole forest can develop out. The primary succession can take a long period of time up to thousands of years. For example, after the Permian-Triassic Extinction, the gymnosperms took 4 or 5 million years to grow. If a tree falls and occupy larger space in the environment or a large tree grows extreme in its size or if we consider a tiny patch of forest, then, they can have a microclimate different from rest of the forest having difference in temperature, amount of sunlight received, degree of protection from weather, etc. Temperature and precipitation have varying effects in different parts of the forest. Different niches can develop according to the nature of the soil in the habitat which can be prefer by variety of animals according to their choice. Succession never stops and the ecosystem keeps on changing.
Climax community have a predictable species aggregate which remain stable until another big disturbance occurs. Stochasticity or randomness is what prevents from predicting or knowing the structure of community after so many years of a disturbance. A community can be said to be in later successional stages if it has high biodiversity with a huge amount of niches rather than stable climax community.
A community contains a mosaic of habitats i.e. plenty of tiny or mini habitats where specific communities of different organisms inhabit. These type of niches are created by disturbance in different time periods. Not all disturbances are bad, the disturbances occurring at the right kind and right scale are essential for the proper functioning of the ecosystem. For example, in the U.S., large plots of forest were not allowed to burn regarding them as source of wood production. Due to the lack of moderate level disturbance for a long period of time, great devastating fire occurred in the Yellowstone National Park in 1988. A single lightning caused such a huge fire that destructed eight hundred thousand hectares of public forest and set the biggest catastrophic record in the history of public land management. But, at present after 20 years of succession, the forests have gone through many changes and the ecosystem has successively developed creating high biodiversity mosaic of habitats. The interesting part in ecology is on studying how destruction and disturbance result in beauty and diversity. The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis given by the ecologists says that when the disturbances are of intermediate level i.e. neither very big nor very small, they are suitable for the ecosystem.